Ritual Stones in Scottish Universities

The tradition of "black stone examination" in Scottish universities is a fascinating aspect of academic history, with roots dating back to at least the 16th century. Here's a summary of the references and information about this practice (produced by Perplexity AI agent):

## Origins and Prevalence

The black stone examination was once a common practice among the five ancient Scottish universities. The earliest known reference to this tradition dates back to 1531 at the University of St Andrews[1]. By 1647, the University Commissioners referred to the examination on the "Black-staine" as a practice common to all Scottish universities[1].

## Specific University References

### University of St Andrews

- An "examen quod appellant nigri lapidis" (examination which they call of the black stone) is mentioned in a 1580 regulation[1].

- The reputed black stone of St Andrews University, now in Parliament Hall, appears to be the base of a column[1].

### University of Glasgow

- In 1659, a regulation mentioned that library fees should be paid before a graduand could proceed to "laureation" (graduation) on the black stone[1].

- The University of Glasgow's Blackstone Chair, created in the mid-1770s, incorporated this tradition into a more elaborate piece of furniture[1].

### University of Edinburgh and Marischal College, Aberdeen

- Both institutions once held black stone examinations, although no trace of the stones used survives[1].

### King's College, Aberdeen

- According to one account, the black marble tombstone of the founder, Bishop Elphinstone, was used at graduation[1].

## Nature of the Examination

The black stone examination was typically an oral examination conducted in Latin or Greek. At the University of Glasgow, for example:

- Students sat on the black stone (later, in the Blackstone Chair) while professors tested their knowledge of chosen books[1].

- An hourglass was used to time the examination[1].

- The examination was part of the process for "promotion" to the next stage in the degree structure[1].

## Evolution and Discontinuation

The practice of black stone examination evolved over time:

- At Glasgow, the tradition was incorporated into the elaborate Blackstone Chair in the 1770s[1].

- The Universities Act of 1858 led to the introduction of written examinations, largely ending the practice of oral examinations on the black stone[1].

## Significance

The black stone examination was more than just an academic test; it was a ritual element that added solemnity and tradition to the examination process. Its widespread use across Scottish universities highlights a shared academic culture and tradition unique to Scotland's educational institutions.

Citations:

[1] https://regionalfurnituresociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/the-blackstone-chair-stephen-jackson.pdf

[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_stane

[3] https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/blackstone-chair-glasgow-scotland

[4] https://museumoftheuniversityofstandrews.wordpress.com/2018/05/09/st-andrews-and-the-blackstone/

[5] https://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/objects/1zz8mu7wSai1ARME0WuMSw

[6] https://collections.st-andrews.ac.uk/collection/furniture/1004089

[7] https://collections.st-andrews.ac.uk/item/black-stone/1000995

[8] https://citydays.com/places/blackstone-chair/

[9] https://electricscotland.com/education/edu18.htm

[10] https://special-collections.wp.st-andrews.ac.uk/2017/12/11/the-exam-season-is-upon-us/

[11] https://www.theglasgowstory.com/image/?inum=TGSD00557

Darwin's Stonehenge Notes

 I have written before about Darwin's Stone at Stonehenge - https://www.sarsen.org/2014/05/darwin-stonehenge-and-worms.html   where he is investigating the actions of worms in burying stones.

His manuscript notes are online:

The stone seems to be Stone 45 

A further manuscript where he measures the build up of mould in the ditch is also online :  

The Location of the Altar Stone Engravings

The location of the enigmatic engravings on the Altar Stone shown in Richard Atkinson's 1958 photos that I found in the Historic England archives is a bit of a mystery. Without doubt they are on the Altar Stone at Stonehenge but the caption "Surface Of Altar Stone From North East" doesn't seem right. We have his photo of the North East side of the Altar Stone (below, last photo) exposed after excavation and it doesn't match. I thought it must be the eastern end of the stone but again there are problems. The photo shows the surface of the stone and a section of soil  butting up to it, indicated in pink in the diagram below. His excavation photo shows he cleared the end so there is not section of soil left.

However examining one of the Historic England photos of the engravings reveals in the top right corner a groove in the top surface of the stone, above where the soil section is. Circled in pink in the marked up diagram version (Due to copyright I can't reproduce the photo).

My own photo of the middle section of the Altar Stone surface is moss free and shows an identical groove on the south side as it goes under Stone 55b. Other photos from other sources also show this groove.

Atkinson's excavation photo shows he dug on the south side of the middle section of the Altar Stone and left a baulk of soil under 55b. A photo taken of that excavation "looking" north east would match the features indicated. The eroded top edge of the Altar Stone appears very similar to that in the photo as well.

I am convinced the location of the engravings is on the south side of the middle section of the Altar Stone.

UPDATE - Aha! I have found more photos where the caption seems to mix up North and South, if 156 is on the left and 55B on the right you are facing North not looking from it. 

"Centre Of Altar Stone From N.W. Stone 156 On Left Stone 55B On Right".https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/photos/item/P50100 

"S.E. End Of Altar Stone From N.W. Stone 156 On Left Stone 55B On Right." https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/photos/item/P50099 

I'm booking a visit to the archive to check them and others out.

Diagram showing the features in the photo of the Altar Stone above

(Photo itself is copyright)

Altar Stone middle section surface looking from North East 

My photo - free to copy, click to enlarge.

Rotated cropped copy with the groove highlighted to match the orientation of Atkinson's photo:

 

Newall's Boulder - A short note on a defective paper

I note the publishers of the deeply flawed paper -  A bluestone boulder at Stonehenge: implications for the glacial transport theory  - have added a warning to it:

"Please read the editorial note first before accessing the article."

"As a platform for scientific discourse, EGQSJ welcomes and expects critical commentary on this article. This page will be updated accordingly."

The comprehensive paper that deals with the egregious errors in the paper is on track to arrive but in the meantime an example of a sin of omission by the author is probably all you need to know.

The bluestone boulder excavated at Stonehenge the paper is about.

A photo of a near identical boulder at Craig Rhos-y-felin (Rhosyfelin), previously published by the author of the paper and not referenced in the paper. (Click photos to embiggen)

The geochemistry of the Stonehenge "Newall" Boulder has been traced back to Craig Rhos-y-felin and other near identical boulders there have been measured and are of similar size to the excavated one. The photographed one and the excavated one would be hard to tell apart, as a photomontage shows:

The paper is based on the idea that the boulder found at Stonehenge is so different from those at “Craig Rhos-y-felin” that only glacial transport can explain the transformation. The logical explanation that humans moved the rock is therefore discounted by him. By not referencing the relevant evidence of his own photographs he eschews that there is no such transformation but at the cost of his integrity. 

The Battle of the Bluestones – Mythology versus Science

 

 Click to enlarge

It is worth recording the theory of how the bluestones were brought to Stonehenge by ice before it goes the way of so many other historic Stonehenge theories; the diluvian destruction, the Mycenaeans, the giants etc.

Simply, when Wales was as cold as charity and covered in ice, down to the white line, Preselian boulders were picked up in the ice and carried along the route of the arrow, see above.

The hills to the south of the Bristol Channel, circled, were periglacial tundra with all the associated landforms - https://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacial-geology/glacial-landforms/periglaciation/antarctic-periglacial-environments/  has examples.

It was a bit more complicated around Bristol with icy wastes pushing up the channel and flowing down from the surrounding higher ground, but that doesn't concern the theory.

The only way through the hills that serve in the office of a wall to protect this blessed plot is across the Somerset levels, which barely rise above sea level.

However even they eventually give way to higher ground.

And unfortunately for the theory there are no traces of the boulder bearing behemoth ever having passed across the green and pleasant.  No glacial erratics, no moraines, nothing. No evidence at all.

"What can be asserted without evidence can also be dismissed without evidence". - Christopher Hitchens. "God Is Not Great: How religion poisons everything" 2009

Where did the missing stones go?

Sarsen Quern Fragment

Mike Pitts asks: "What happened to these missing stones? Who took them down and where did they go?

As I wrote some time ago: 

One of the mysteries of Stonehenge is what happened to the missing Sarsens. Assuming it was complete somewhere in the order of 300 tonnes of sarsen stone is missing. Apart from the edge damage caused by visitors it seems that complete stones were removed and that they were chosen from within the monument for some reason. Why take that lintel but leave the easier to remove fallen stone here? The stones don't seem to be present in any local buildings and it seems to odd to suggest they were broken up for roadstone when the easier pickings of the bluestones don't seem to have been so.

Julian Richards has suggested that one reason that sarsens were removed was for the stone to be used for producing grinding querns. There is very little stone in neighborhood suitable for stones to grind grain with and some sarsen stone types are very suitable, other less so. So a source of excellent source material may have been irresistible in the later Bronze Age, and a quern manufactory set up.

"East of (north Fargo) plantation the field system corresponds with an area of later Bronze Age activity identified by extensive surface collection in the winter of 1980-81 and subsequently sampled more intensively (Richards, J 1990 The Stonehenge Environs Project. HBMC: London ). The surface scatter consisted of pottery and large quantities of burnt flint and burnt and broken sarsen, including quern fragments, and was interpreted as a small nucleated area of later Bronze Age settlement, lying within the area of regular field"

Research Department Report Series 82-2011 

STONEHENGE WORLD HERITAGE SITE LANDSCAPE PROJECT LEVEL 1 FIELD INVESTIGATIONS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY REPORT 

Sharon Bishop

And from: The Stonehenge Environs Project, Richards, J., English Heritage (1990), ISBN: 9781848022096

I have also written about a possible fate for some of the bluestones, to become Roman Pessoi

https://www.sarsen.org/2021/02/bluestone-arse-wipe.html  

But maybe some of the circle never progressed from wood to stone.

Stonehenge's Origins: A Unifying Monument for Ancient Britons - PR

Recent archaeological research, building on two prior studies, points to a fascinating possibility about Stonehenge: it may have been reconstructed in England between 2620 and 2480 BC to serve as a unifying symbol for ancient Britons amidst the arrival of newcomers from Europe. This new study, detailed in Archaeology International, sheds light not only on the monument's purpose but also on the monumental task of transporting a 6 tonne stone over a staggering distance of 435 miles (700 kilometers) from its original location.

  
The research draws intriguing parallels between Stonehenge, situated on England's Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, and similar stone circles in Scotland. These similarities suggest a greater degree of connectivity between these ancient societies than previously imagined, painting a picture of a well-networked Neolithic world where cultural exchanges could have influenced monumental architecture across Britain. This connectivity could imply shared rituals, beliefs, or social structures that transcended geographical boundaries, offering a new lens through which we view the interactions among ancient peoples.

 
“These new insights have significantly expanded our understanding as to what the original purpose of Stonehenge might have been. It shows that this site on Salisbury Plain was important to the people not just living nearby, but across Britain, so much so that they brought massive monoliths across sometimes hundreds of miles to this one location.” - Mike Parker Pearson

Paper in Archaeology International in 2025 - https://journals.uclpress.co.uk/ai/issue/602/info/